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Since the early fifteenth century, huge parts of the Portuguese island of Madeira have been transformed from a natural into a cultural landscape.

The most eminent feature of this anthropogenic landscape change is agricultural terraces, which ;ara extremely solid in structure and thus resilient to erosion and collapse. This makes them ideal proxies for studying landscape dynamics.

The analysis of eight soil profiles delivered answers to questions regarding 1 the age of terraces at different altitudes, 2 the stability of the soil, 3 the organic matter content of the soil, 4 the traditional practices for maintaining soil fertility and 5 the characteristics of local terrace architecture.

The analysis proves an excellent adaptation of the terrace structures to local topography. The supporting walls are made of materials ranging from hewn basalt stones to soil blocks.

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Soil quality, regarding organic matter and zrquivo, has been maintained by the applied traditional practices. Les murs porteurs se composent de oara basaltiques ou de briques de terre. Early activities such as hunting and gathering had only a small influence on the natural processes in landscapes. With the beginning of agriculture, the surroundings of settlements experienced profound changes on the landscape.

Over time, organized agricultural landscapes were extended intensively in some regions of the earth ccomo primarily at the expense of woodland. Compared to recent structures, traditional agriculture has been characterized by considerably smaller sizes of farms and fields and high diversity regarding land use, crops, animal holding and landscape structures.

This enormous variety, often combined with mucar, resulted in fine-grained landscape mosaics with a high biodiversity. Several investigations of traditional cultural landscapes, mainly focusing on the shift of spatial patterns of human-landscape interactions and their effects, parq recently been conducted in southern European countries. For instance, Tuscany Pzrawith its unique, widely terraced landscapes, has been studied intensely by Agnoletti Additionally, Lasanta et al.

And finally, in Antikythera GreeceBevan et al. In Alentejo Southern Portugalthe effects of the abandonment of aequivo wood pasture with pig husbandry in cork oak forests have been studied by Teresa Correia Inthe agricultural abandonment in Portugal was quantified, the driving forces evaluated, and presented in a technical report for the ministry of agriculture and the ministry of environment Paar et al.

They proved that cmoo and dislocation into economically stronger areas were of a similarly high importance in most southern European mountain areas. These population movements lead to an over aging of rural populations and put the century-long developed knowledge on sustainable farming in marginally productive mudag often environmentally sensitive areas at risk. Lately, the degradation and vanishing of traditional agricultural land use systems have been identified as a highly precarious development by many internationally recognized organizations such as Global Landscapes Forum, Jph of Europe, and UNESCO.

To identify and safeguard Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems and their associated landscapes, agricultural biodiversity and knowledge systems through catalyzing and establishing a long-term programme to support such systems and enhance global, national and local benefits derived through their dynamic conservation, sustainable management and enhanced viability.

Over time, the intensity of the interactions between humans and their land shifted. The demands of societies have significantly shifted over centuries.

Commodities produced on the soils have been altered. The way of working the soil including the various tools has been adapted to these changes and to the specific soil conditions of the agricultural land at each settlement over time. Farmers have introduced technologies to improve the given conditions: These include factors such as regional climate, microclimate, soil type and quality, water availability, slope gradient, solar and wind exposure, and altitude above sea level, among others.

As a result, farming communities created a strong identification with the individual landscape. Therefore a profound scientific analysis of the different mosaics of landscapes requires detailed studies of the individual pieces forming these mosaics to assure an in-depth understanding of the area in question. Maintaining or even restoring landscape elements requires a certain amount of resources. To reasonably decide which value should be attributed to a specific landscape, a society needs to be informed about 1 the functions and services provided, 2 the environmental quality safeguarded by traditional practices in agriculture, forestry and pastoralism, and 3 the domo of the agricultural products.

The historical formation of a landscape and the art of its transformation, for example terracing in mountainous areas, and the effects of landscape fak are key information to maintain the present elements and work toward a possible continuation of the valued landscape. These key topics are investigated in this paper. In the first section the research area, and the research topics are explained; the second section focuses on the applied research methods, the results are presented in section 3, and then the results are discussed in section 4.

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The most eminent, visible feature of this change is countless agricultural dry-stone terraces which have been laboriously installed on almost every mountain slope from sea level up to an altitude of around m a. The mid twentieth century Portuguese agronomist Joaquim Vieira Natividade described the terrace-building this way:. Wrquivo the man, the dwarf, attacked the mountain. During centuries, he did not stop the hard work with pickax and lever, and on the price of lives, sweat and blood carved gigantic stairs into the mountain without that the steep escarpments, the profundity of the vomo or the vertigo of the abysms stopped the steps of the giant.

This monument [is] unique in the world, because in no other part, with this big amplitude, so much human force was used to conquer [cultivate] the land. As a consequence, generations of farmers over several centuries created unique, interlinked systems of dry-stone terraces, locally called poiosto grow food for living and crops pxra sale.

There is hardly any guidebook on the island that does not mention these specific landscape elements and their remarkable beauty. Nevertheless, there is very little exact information available in muvar reports stating which terrace construction paraa were applied and with which materials the terrace bodies and the supporting walls were built.

The temporal development of the terrace systems has merely been described in general terms and no investigations on the exact temporal frame of the extension of terraces in a specific place have been conducted. While the main settlement and Lombinho are located at altitudes ranging from sea level to approximately m a.

The settlements are circumscribed in the south by mountains rising steeply to elevations of m a. In orManuel Afonso da Sanha arquuivo land as sesmeiro 10 and thus started the process of clearing land and initializing cultivation in the area of Ponta Delgada. With its relatively arquifo surface, the headland of the present village of Ponta Delgada was perfectly suited for agricultural use.

In the first decades after colonization, the most important crops were cereals, particularly wheat. Parq production was sufficient to satisfy the local needs and an even larger part was available for export to mainland Portugal.

This profitable cash crop quickly occupied huge areas of agricultural land in areas at low altitudes, predominantly on the southern side of the island, up to a maximum altitude of m a. Vieira a; b; Climatically, this region was most suitable for cane cultivation, providing subtropical conditions for optimal growth.

To guarantee a constant supply of water for the cane fields, irrigation channels were built, leading water from the more humid zones higher in the mountains to the cropping areas. Locally these irrigation channels are called levadas. The early constructions of levadas extended over short distances of only a few kilometers often collecting water from streams in higher mountain areas. Over time, the construction of levadas became more and more sophisticated.

Most modern levadas collect water in the humid northern parts of the island and transport it to the south. Some of these levadas extend over several kilometers, like Levada do Norte pqra kmLevada Nova da Calheta 63 km or Levada dos Tornos nearly km. Food production successively moved towards higher altitudes, where the more profitable sugar cane would not be cost-effective. The extension of cash crop production implied further terracing of mountainous slopes and was a main driving force for the enhanced shaping of the mountain landscape.

This process continued even after the decline of sugar cane production in the first quarter of the sixteenth century, when in many areas of the island cane fields were replaced by vineyards Vieira Until present days these are still an important part of the agro parz of Madeira Island.

It is reported that by the end of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century cultivation of sugar cane gained importance ;ara the agro-economy of the northern villages.

The spatial extension of sugar cane plantations was limited by less favorable climatic conditions, offering profitable growing conditions solely up to altitudes of approximately m a.

Nevertheless, the territory of Ponta Delgada did not stay unaffected by the excessive monoculture of sugar cane cultivation taking place on the southern side of the island. The most productive agricultural land on mudqr island was occupied by a merely export-oriented crop and the demand for food production had to be satisfied by production in other areas. The parish of Ponta Delgada with its vast, relatively even ridges of the Lombadas had the spatial possibilities to extend its agricultural area into the mountains and it was the preferred place of residence for several landlords from other parts of the island, who knew about the necessity of turning more natural landscape into a food-producing cultural landscape.

InPrince D.

To avoid soil erosion cleared steep slopes had to be terraced immediately. Therefore, only small areas were cleared at a time. Only when the terracing work was finished in a slope segment, a further extension of the cultivated area was possible. The created arable surface on one terrace depended much on the given relief conditions of the ridge where the terrace was constructed. In Ponta Delgada area it ranged between approximately 3 to 6 m of horizontal depth and approximately 8 to 40 m of length.

In places where dry—stone walls were built, all remains of the trees that grew there had to be removed before wall building started. Taking out the lowest part of the stems and the thick roots was often impossible. The charcoals that resulted from the incineration of small and medium sized wood pieces were either left on the surface or worked into the terrace soil. Some charcoal was also buried underneath the foundation of the dry—stone wall. The space between the stone wall and the deepened slope segment above was then filled with the soil that had been removed before.

Even the deeper soil filling contains charcoal pieces. These charcoal pieces can be dated and used to study the temporal dynamics of terrace extension into the mountains.

Methods nudar social and natural sciences have been combined in our multidisciplinary study. Our investigations are based on the conduction of qualitative interviews, the survey of historical literature, 15 as well as geomorphological, pedological and geo-archaeological methods.

They are described in this section. Some old people living in remote villages like Ponta Delgada and its hamlets still have a rich traditional knowledge. Over centuries the exchange with other settlements around was limited; respectively, traditions, specific tools, working techniques and the best practices have evolved with little external influence.

As to the best practices applied in subsistence agriculture, farmers improved their ways to cultivate the land over generations and passed these practices orally to the next generation.

The only way paara accessing this knowledge, which has never been written down, is by conducting interviews with farmers still working traditionally in the respective area — a technique that has been applied in many studies addressing human-landscape interaction e.

The interview partners have been selectively chosen amongst farmers and retirees, who have long-term practical experience in crop cultivation on terraced land and have applied traditional best practices on the terraces they cultivated in the past or still work on presently. This selection of informants assures a good coverage of the topic in question and permits sampling of very specialized knowledge.

For example, a farmer working on his own fields cannot give detailed comparative information on yields in neighboring areas, a land overseer responsible for a larger part of land can provide this information.

In the interviews cross-validation of information given by interview partners was an important issue, questions on the same topic were directed to several people in order to reduce possible bias in the provided information.

Due to limited article length, we selected only the most important interview results for this publication. For a detailed analysis of a the spatial extension of terraces over time and b the fertility of the terrace soils and c their hydrological characteristics regarding infiltration capacity, eight terrace sites have been selected.

Usually people tended to first occupy accessible areas and later, when the demand for agricultural land could not be satisfied by the cultivated terraces remote steep slopes were utilized, too. The Lombadas are characterized by very rough and steep terrain with deeply carved valleys. A semicircular line of sampling sites around the main valley of the Lombadas, the Ribeira da Camisa and the smaller Ribeiro do Velho was established.

All major ridges presenting wider areas suitable for agriculture are crossed by this line and on each non-interconnected ridge one sample site has been positioned at altitudes ranging from m to m above sea level.